austria
Germany and Austria are Central European countries with few natural borders, which has led to several dividing and unifying processes in their history. In the course of the twentieth century, Germany and Austria have changed their frontiers more than once; in the aftermath of World War II, Germany was divided into two parts for over 40 years, reunifying in 1989. The histories of German and Austrian photography therefore have been characterized more by individual contributions and various stylistic approaches than by distinctive national tendencies. On the other hand, the countries' geopolitical situations drew the attention of countless wanderers between East and West, which allowed German and Austrian art and culture to develop integrally within larger international movements.
German and Austrian photography in the twentieth century has been, for the most part, a mirror of the medium's history, but with a certain emphasis on singular developments. This ponderation is mainly due to the German language, which emphasizes precise formulation and descriptive qualities, often at the cost of elegance and dignity. German science and art have been described as conceptually strong and devoted to long-term developments, even if they come comparatively late. The stylistic histories of the visual arts and architecture in Germany and Austria demonstrate that these countries have rarely been the site of inventions or innovations but often that of the maturation of a particular technique or style. As German and Austrian photography encompasses virtually all developments in photography, they reflect the general historical development of photography in the twentieth century.
The widespread fine art photography, or Pic-torialist movement, brandished its waves on the German shore but left little impact on history as a whole. The Viennese Trifolium (Hugo Henneberg, Heinrich Kühn, Hans Watzek), founded in 1891 and dissolved by Watzek's death in 1896, was exhibited in Berlin, Dresden, Hamburg, and Munich, but only a few followed the American Alfred Stieglitz's clarion call for artists. The brothers Theodor and Oskar Hofmeister from Hamburg exhibited widely throughout the country, as well as the Krefeld sports teacher Otto Scharf, the Hamburg merchant Heinrich Wilhelm Müller, the painter Friedrich Matthies-Masuren, and the military officer Ludwig David from Berlin. Some of the fine art photographers specialized within the field, many in portraiture: Rudolf Dührkoop and his daughter Minya Diez-Dührkoop in Hamburg and Bremen, Hugo Erfurth in Dresden, Jacob Hilsdorff in Bingen and Munich, and Nicola Perscheid in Berlin. The Wiener Kamera Klub founded in Vienna spread Pictorialist ideas.
Two men were, on different levels, influential in spreading the idea of photography as a fine art among a larger public. One was the German-American and co-founder of the Photo-Secession Frank Eugene, who, having studied painting in Munich, stayed in town and effectively pursued both arts among the scene; his close collaboration with the famous painter Franz von Stuck emphasized photography's impact on art. Having taught portrait photography at the Bavarian State School of Photography, he was named Professor of Fine Art Photography at the Academy of Graphics and Book Art in Leipzig in 1913—the first professoral seat in art photography in Germany. The other, Erwin Quedenfeldt in Dusseldorf, was not as lucky; he had wanted to integrate his private school of Fine Art Photography into the local School of Arts and Craft, then under the reign of the well-known designer Peter Behrens, but he had to give up these plans after Behrens' move to Berlin in 1908. Quedenfeldt, a chemist by profession, invented a printing process and was busy inventorying rural architecture in the Lower Rhine area. In Vienna, the Staatliche Graphische Lehr-und Versuchsanstalt (State Graphic Teaching and Research Faculty), founded in 1888, still concentrated on the technical side of the medium, expanding to art only after 1918, mostly under the influence of Rudolf Koppitz.
Both Eugene and Quedenfeldt, as well as the portraitist Hugo Erfurth, had prepared the road to modernism in photography by introducing high contrasts and plain white backgrounds into their work long before these practices were common. On the other hand, the work of two of the most important of the German modernists—August Sander and Albert Renger-Patzsch—is not explicable without noting their backgrounds in the Fine Art movement. While Sander had tried to establish himself as a professional Fine Art Photographer before World War I, Renger-Patzsch came from an amateur background, his father being a widely published author on technical aspects of photography, like gum-printing. In 1925, August Sander was encouraged by some friends from the Cologne art scene to reprint his old portraits on technical paper and to collect them under a sociological scheme. In less than four years, he had identified subjects that he thought represented Germany, his concept incorporating portraiture as well as architectural photography. When his first book appeared in 1929 under the title of Antlitz der Zeit (Face of Time), it was acclaimed with great applause as a mirror of German society. Albert Renger-Patzsch had appeared on the scene just one year before with his book Die Welt ist schon (The World is Beautiful), which received similar fame, although its title was rejected by nearly all critics.
Albert Renger-Patzsch had brought straight photography to Germany in the manner executed a decade earlier by Paul Strand: images of technical, natural, and artificial objects depicted from low distance under sharp light with overall deli cacy in showing surfaces and detail. Recognition-for Renger-Patzsch came precisely at the time when avant-garde painters had switched to a style named Neue Sachlichkeit (New Objectivity), which applied notions about realistic representation to painting as obviously derived from photography. The climate of these developments was felt more strongly at several art schools and academies of the time in Germany and Austria, one of which has lent its name to a number of stylistic approaches: the Bauhaus. For the first nine of its 14 years of existence, photography was an integral part only of the basic (foundation) course at the Bauhaus. Masters like Georg Muche and Laszlo Moholy-Nagy introduced the medium to their students as a means of visual training, a practice that can be traced in the work of avant-garde luminaries like Umbo (Otto Umbehr) or Irene and the Austrian Herbert Bayer.
When Moholy-Nagy began teaching at the Dessau Bauhaus, his wife Lucia Moholy turned from her work in the promotion of literature and took up the documentation of her husband's paintings, the designs of students and other teachers, and with a long series of architectural photographs of the new Bauhaus buildings at Dessau. She also did Moholy-Nagy's darkroom work, reproducing his photo-grams, preparing his books for print, and advising him on technical details for his camera photographs. For several decades, her work languished in the shadow of her husband's huge and influential œuvre but, according to the recollections of various Bauhaus students, Lucia Moholy was equally influential on their photographic practice.
When the Moholys left the Bauhaus in 1927, Joost Schmidt taught a class in advertising and photography, again as part of the foundation course. In 1929, Schmidt invited Walter Peterhans to start a class in photography, in fact the only photography course at the Bauhaus, which continued until it was closed by the Nazis in 1933. Peter-hans's curriculum followed guidelines well known to photography students all over Germany: methods of developing film and prints; studies in densitometry, photograms, setting of light; and the main uses of the medium. The only truly modern curriculum in photography was taught just a few miles away from Dessau, at the arts-and-crafts school at Burg Giebichenstein in Halle. Following an aborted career as an art historian, Hans Finsler, initially the school's librarian, designed a modern curriculum based on photography's unique, in-trinstic qualities. In Halle, Finsler was unable to fully explore his ideas, but with his departure for Zurich he was to become the most influental tea cher in Swiss photography of his era. Besides Hans Finsler, it was Max Burchartz at the Folkwang school in Essen who had, more or less by chance, introduced photography into his curriculum and practice, and two of his students at the end of the 1920s, Anton Stankowski and Klaus Wittkugel, were to gain fame in the 1950s as graphic designers using photography.
When Walter Peterhans was called for the Bauhaus, he left behind a small advertising studio to two of his private students, Grete Stern and Ellen Auerbach. Under their nicknames ''ringl + pit,'' Stern and Auerbach made this studio well known among advertising agencies and designers of the late 1920s. Although only in their mid-1920s, Stern and Auerbach attained immediate success with their application of modernist principles to advertising, fashion, and object (still life) photography. A number of their competitors at the time were also receiving recognition with their work: Ilse Bing in Frankfurt on the Main started a career in theater and dance photography while studying art history; Gisele Freund used her camera to document political demonstrations in the same town where she was studing sociology; and Lotte Jacobi, who had taken over her father's photographic workshop, created journalistic portraits of prominent and everyday people. She not only published her photographs in various illustrated newspapers but also accompanied the famous writer Egon Erwin Kisch throughout the Soviet Union and Central Asia.
Lotte Jacobi's work was in the new field of photo journalism. She especially dealt with the political aspects of the field by cooperating with the large commercial papers as well as with communist party activists like the photo-monteur John Heartfield (Helmut Herzfelde), for whom she set the protagonists of his posters into the scene. The introduction of photographic journalism into Germany had been delayed, which proved an advantage when it arrived as a force in the late 1920s. The large printing companies not only introduced autotype printing of photographs in 1925 in German tabloids and magazines, but they also devoted considerable space to photographic reproductions, allowing a new generation of young illustrators and photographers to create innovative lay-out and design schemes. In the highly competitive market of German-illustrated newspapers of the 1920s and 1930s, editors welcomed such innovation and counted on the name recognition of the emerging "star" photographers to sell their publications. A star system had soon emerged.
The first "star" of photojournalism was, without doubt, Erich Salomon. After studies in jurispru dence, he served the Ullstein publishing house in legal affairs. During a court case, he took candid photographs. Although such activities were strictly forbidden, the resulting images were so respectful to both the court and the litigants that Salomon was thereafter greatly sought out to document the important events of the day. There was no important conference without Salomon present up to the mid-1930s, yet even his distinguished reputation did not prevent his being murdered by the Nazis at Auschwitz in 1944. Other photojournalists of the late 1920s, such as Felix H. Man, followed Erich Salomon's precedent; others, such as the brothers George and N. Tim Gidal, found their themes in everyday life. Austrian press photographers like Lothar Ruebelt concentrated on sports very early, whereas Harald Lechenperg pursued a career as a traveling journalist with long trips to Central Asia and Africa. But most journalistic photographs were provided by press agencies, which gave a number of very young practitioners the chance to introduce themselves into the field. The left-leaning magazines had to rely on a well-organized amateur movement called Arbeiterfotografie for the majority of their images. Photographers like Walter Ballhause, Erich Rinka, John Graudenz, Ernst Thormann, Richard Peter senior, and Toni Tripp emerged out of this movement. Among the Arbeiterfoto correspondents who survived the Nazi persecution and received positions in the newly founded German Democratic Republic (GDR), Walter Ballhause is the most prominent.
Most journalists in the 1920s treated the Nazi party movement with a mixture of oppression and neglect, and subsequently they were among the first who feared for their lives after the National Socialist party came to power in January, 1933. Erich Salomon did not return from a conference in Den Haag; N. Tim Gidal used the occasion of another conference to flee to Switzerland; Felix H. Man followed his editor Stephan Lorant to the United Kingdom; Gisele Freund had to emigrate to France in order to finish her doctoral thesis. Ilse Bing had moved to Paris just prior to these political developments, and Hans Finsler was appointed lecturer of photography at the Zurich school of arts and crafts in 1932. What was left to German photojournalism after this severe loss can be viewed as a level of mediocracy as well as a chance for very young amateurs, who seized the opportunity for careers. These photographers include: Wolfgang Weber, Hilmar Pabel, Bernd Lohse, Wolf Strache, Werner Cohnitz, Max Ehlert, and Erich Stempka, just to name a few. But even these men produced material of a higher quality than the photo-journalism efforts of the Nazis—even propaganda minister Joseph Goebbels regularly bemoaned the miserable quality of the photographic material presented to him. What happened in Germany in 1933 was to be repeated in Austria in 1938: When the Nazis came into the country, a number of photographers like Wilhelm and Laszlo Willinger had to flee from their homes and businesses.
Photography, of course, was an integral part of the Nazi propaganda machine. As photography was seen as inherently modern in proposition and effect, there was no rejection of modern or even avantgarde styles in the first years of the regime. In 1929, the Stuttgart exhibition Film und Foto had set the framework for a common foundation of knowledge about modern German photography; historically, this exhibition must be seen as an important retrospective of the various experimental techniques and styles of German photography to date. When the exhibition traveled to a number of German cities, it was welcomed by critics and public alike, and graphic designers could no longer think of effectively advertising products without using photographs. As a result, modernism was well established at the time of the Nazi regime, and a number of modern designer-photographers continued working without change. Herbert Bayer worked for advertising agencies and curated large exhibitions featuring works that utilized photomontage, serial imagery, and avant-garde leaflets. Bayer's last show accompanied the Berlin Olympic Games and was an enormous success, while it also marked the tolerance of modernism by the Nazis. In early 1938, Bayer left for the United States, where he went on to become a leading designer and photographer.
The fate of another modernist was not as lucky: Else Simon-Neulander, better known under her brand name Yva, was the most famous fashion photographer in Germany of the 1930s and published in all important magazines. In 1936, she was urged to sell her business to a friend; in 1938, she began work as an X-ray assistant in a Berlin hospital. In 1942, she was deported to the Majdanek concentration camp, where she is suspected to have been murdered. Her last apprentice, Helmut Newton (Neustaedter), however, survived by fleeing to Australia. Many other photographers, including Lotte Jacobi, left their businesses behind, sold them for cheap or gave them away for nothing, using all of their belongings to pay for their emigration. On the other hand, some of these cheaply acquired photostudios allowed other careers to flourish, a phenomenon which continued after World War II.
In many minds, Nazi photography is synonymous with the work of Heinrich Hoffmann. A well-trained portrait photographer with stages abroad, including at the atelier of E. O. Hoppe in London, he opened a small studio in Munich shortly before World War I. In 1921, he met Adolf Hitler and became a personal friend; Hitler eventually transferred to Hoffmann the copyright of his image, resulting in the fact that no one was allowed to take or sell photographs of Hitler without Hoffmann's permission. To this monoculture of imagery came a racist ideology, as spread in photographic books by Erna Lendvai-Dircksen and Erich Retzlaff. The result was an average boredom of the public when looking at photographs, and this would only be overcome by propaganda strategies of individual authorship. As with the communist Arbeiterfotografie (Worker Photograpy) movement, the Nazi government tried to stimulate amateur photography by installing local groups, subsiding amateur magazines, and combining sport or travel activities with photography. Leni Reifenstahl is also closely associated with the Nazi movement, especially her film and the photographs adapted from it of the Berlin Games.
The amateurs, however, needed stars to look up to, and by 1933, two were already available: Walter Hege and Paul Wolff. Both were moderately modern in their work; both were extremely productive and actively teaching at workshops and in academies, but their work focused in different directions. Walter Hege was an interpreter of ancient ruins, and Paul Wolff depicted the beauty of everyday life, especially for those few lucky and rich enough to afford driving around Germany in automobiles. In the late 1930s, he was followed by the Austrian Stefan Kruckenhauser with similar images on what was now called the Ostmark. Albert Renger-Patzsch still was recognized as the greatest photographer at the time but did not gain the status of a star during this era as did Hege and Wolff. The most important aim of these photographers and their role in state propaganda was not achieved, however: to inspire a large number of young women and men to become the next generation of propagandists. As a result, World War II began with the Nazis undertaking great efforts to install Propaganda companies (PK) and to enlist such well-known photographers as Hanns Hubmann, Fritz Kempe, Hilmar Pabel, and Lothar Ruebelt. But, despite their being masterfully photographed and printed, these military propaganda pictures had little lasting influence.
Those images that would have interested the German public in a totally different way were not published before 1945: photographs of acts of persecution against Jews, the Sinti and Roma people, political opponents, and all those not able or will ing to fit into the racist scheme of the Nazi regime. Most of the images that depict the Holocaust are derived from material seen, taken, and supplied by the perpetrators themselves, thus showing only one side of the truth. Crimes against humanity, as executed openly among the German people, were set into scenes in order to be photographed and recorded in a matter similar to documentary filming. Photographs of concentration camps are rare, and even rarer are images like those by Mendel Grossman of the Ghetto in Lodz, Poland, which had to be smuggled out shortly before he was transported to another camp, where he died. The rarity of these photographs quickly made them icons of the Holocaust, contrasting sharply with the masses of propaganda photographs taken by amateurs and professionals alike, as these few images show the actual horror of people willing to look away from what was done in their name.
After 1945, Germany lay in agony, and so did German photography. Only a few photographers documented the damage and destruction of the country's cities, as Robert Capa had done on his assignment in Berlin in August, 1945. Eva Kemlein worked in Berlin, Hermann Claasen in Cologne, Erna Wagner-Hehmke in Dusseldorf, Karl-Heinz Mai and Renate Roessing in Leipzig, Lala Aufsberg in Nuremberg, and Herbert List and Tom von Wichert in Munich. Many others did not wish to know anything about war and its results. The older photographers who had participated in propaganda and other war crimes now took their motifs from nature, so as to deny that they had helped to destroy a cultivated country. Younger photographers fled to abstraction as a manifestation of their amnesia. In 1949, a group of young photographers was formed which was to become the nucleus of 1950s modernism; its name was fotoform, and the more famous members were Peter Keetman, Otto Stei-nert, and Ludwig Windstosser. Keetman represented the purest form of fotoform; Steinert had incredible impact on the German photographic scene as teacher, and Windstosser presented German industry after its remarkable postwar recovery. The group offered membership to two older avant-gardists—Raoul Hausmann, the former dadasoph; and Heinz Hajek-Halke, who had played a minor but prolific role in the 1920s.
Hajek-Halke taught on a part-time contract at the Berlin Academy and helped a number of students to find their way, among them characters so diverse as Dieter Appelt and Michael Ruetz. Otto Steinert taught in Saarbrucken until 1959, where he helped important artists like Monika von Boch, Kilian Breier, and Detlef Orlopp start their careers, but he switched to teaching straight photo-journalism upon moving to Essen. Among his more important students were Hans-Joerg Anders, Henning Christoph, Juergen Heinemann, Bernd Jansen, Dirk Reinartz, Heinrich Riebesehl, Guido Mangold, Rudi Meisel, Peter Thomann, Walter Vogel, Wolfgang Vollmer, and Wolfgang Volz. A few of Steinert's students in the 1960s moved to art photography (e.g., Arno Jansen, Andre Gelpke, and Timm Rautert).
The situation in Austria after 1945 was slightly different: U.S. propaganda magazines like Heute encouraged a number of very young photographers like Ernst Haas and Jewish immigrants like Erich Lessing to create a fresh scene of a life magazine journalism nearly unknown in any other European country. From the same ground, the career of Inge Morath emerged.
There were important exponents of 1960s photojournalism in Germany besides Steinert's students. On one hand, men like Robert Lebeck and Thomas Hoepker pursued their own careers within classic journalism, whereas other photographers like F.C. Gundlach, Walter Lautenbacher, and Charlotte March laid out new goals for fashion photography; even Helmut Newton returned to the German-illustrated papers via France. Advertising and industry instigated a number of photographers to produce masterworks in this field, among them Robert Hausser, Franz Lazi, Will McBride, Karl-Hugo Schmolz, and Walde Huth, and, above them all, Reinhart Wolf. While there were many developments in politics and society during this era, art was not yet a real theme in photography until the mid-1970s. The only movement that quietly blossomed in the 1960s was called Generative Fotografie, which indicated a self-referential, extremely abstract form of autopoeti-cally generated images in photographic techniques, including micrography, chemigraphy, and multiple pin-hole photography. This movement was led by Gottfried Jager and embraced figures as diverse as Hein Gravenhorst, Karl-Martin Holzhaeuser, and Manfred Kage. This movement stimulated early experiments in computer graphics as well, as seen in the work of Herbert W. Franke, Manfred Mohr, and Frieder Nake.
Parallel to the renaissance of interest in classical photography as seen in the art market in the 1970s, there were two chains of development that represent German photography for the next 20 years. One received the name of auteur photography, after film theory's use of the term, with Andreas Miieller-Pohle and Wilhelm Schuermann as its main protagonists, following in the footsteps of Steinert students Arno Jansen and Heinrich
Riebesehl, whom they identified as their artistic fathers. The other, more important development can be described as the integration of photography into all existing concepts of art, but used mainly as a means of documenting the artist's own body. Dieter Appelt had been the forgotten forerunner of this movement, but all of those who followed him, from Gerhard Richter to Jürgen Klauke, Katharina Sieverding, and Klaus Rinke with Monica Baumgartl to Anna and Bernhard Johanne Blume, owed a great deal to his efforts and emphasis. Painter Sigmar Polke, who integrated reproduction technologies and photochemistry into classical as well as Pop forms of painting, explored new territory that has proven to be extraordinarily influential. All of these artists became teachers at various German art academies but did found stylistic schools of their own.
The auteur movement was equally strong in Austria, and some of its proponents like Manfred Willmann, Cora Pongraz, Michael Mauracher, and Margherita Spiluttini gained world fame. On the other hand, there was the Wiener Aktionismus (Vienna Actionism) of performance and body art, which initiated the use of photography in the visual arts on a definitely new level. Protagonists of this development were Peter Weibel, Rudolf Schwarz-kogler, Heinz Cibulka, Guenther Brus, and others who did not record their actions themselves but with the help of press photographer Ludwig Hoffenreich. This movement forms the background against which more recent artists such as Valerie Export have emerged.
The work of Hilla and Bernd Becher presents an entirely different case. Starting with architectural documentation of vernacular industrial sculptures in—according to the language—a typical German manner, the Bechers' work around 1970 represented the best of Conceptual Art and craft tradition in photography. In 1976, Bernd Becher was appointed professor of photography at the Dusseldorf academy and immediately began to assemble a class in the traditional sense of the word. A number of exhibitions made discernable three generations of Becher students who themselves have gained fame throughout the world now. The first generation is best represented by Candida Hofer, Axel Hütte, and Thomas Struth; the second by Andreas Gursky, Thomas Ruff —now his successor on the Dusseldorf chair—Jorg Sasse, and Petra Wunderlich. The third generation does not yet carry the clear profile of the earlier group, but includes already well-known artists like Laurenz Berges, Johannes Bruns, Christine Erhard, Elger Esser, Claus Goe-dicke, Heiner Schilling, and Andrea Zeitler.
The success of Bernd Becher's class concept stimulated similar efforts at other academies. Angela Neuke, former student of Martha Hoepffner and Otto Steinert, was installed to a seat at Essen university in 1983 after a long career in photojournalism, and she pursued, until her untimely death in 1997, the set up of a large class of promising designers and photo journalists, among them well-known names like Joachim Brohm, Zoltan Jokay, Volker Heinze, Karin Apollonia Müller, and Markus Werres. On the other hand, since the late 1950s, the Leipzig Hochschule fur Grafik und Buchkunst (Academy of Graphic and Book Art)—the oldest academy in Germany—had watched closely what happened in the classes of Otto Steinert, his colleagues, and his successors. Nearly every student at this school had to fix his identity against the Western advantages in photo-journalism, which was damned as propaganda in order to install the GDR's own vision. Whereas Gerhard Kiesling, Lotti OrtnerRohr, Richard Peter junior, Wolfgang G. Schröter, Erich Schutt, and Horst Sturm can clearly be seen as the next generation of German propaganda photographers, others became dissidents of the system and subsequently were not shown again before the late 1980s. Ursula Arnold has to be named here in first place, whereas the roles of, among others, Ulrich Burchert, Arno Fischer, Evelyn Richter, Detlev and Uwe Steinberg remain a little iridescent.
Since 1978, after the installation of the art historian Peter Pachnicke as head of the photography class, interest shifted from straight-forward photojournalism to what was the official function of art in socialist countries: the view on mankind. Christian Borchert and Helfried Strauß broadened the classical fields; Jens Rotzsch and Rudolf Schafer introduced photographic design to the GDR; Sybille Bergemann and Ute Mahler did the same for fashion. During the 1980s, several GDR photographers earned international fame through magazines and books, among them Ulrich Wüst, who had come from town planning, and a number of performance artists using photography as a means of expression, for example, Kurt Buchwald, Klaus Elle, and Klaus Hahner-Springmühl. Shortly before and after the German re-unification of 1990, a number of Leipzig students formed another nucleus of architectural documentation, by no means minor to the Becher class: Max Baumann, Matthias Hoch, Frank-Heinrich Müller, Peter Oehlmann, HansChristian Schink, Erasmus Schroter, and Thomas Wolf were followed by Thilo Kühne, Annett Stuth, and a growing number of young photographers now studying in Leipzig under the new direction of Joachim Brohm, Astrid Klein, and Timm Rautert.
August Sander, Young peasants on their way to a dance, 1913/print ca. 1971 by Gunther Sander from original negative, gelatin silver print, 29.7 x 22.1 cm, Museum Purchase. [Photograph courtesy of George Eastman House]
The 1990s saw in Germany the same integration of all fields formerly separated in art, design, and technology. Computer imagery and virtual reality, model building and exact documentation, still and moving images grew into each other and were exhibited as photography only under the conditions of being a two-dimensional, printed, or projected plane. Thomas Demand's work, for example, is shown as photography although he considers himself more a media artist and sculptor. On the other hand, Gudrun Kemsa, trained as sculptor, is equally known as a video artist and as a photographer. Heidi Specker has had a training in photography, but her work can be traced in computer graphics as well. Susanne Brügger's Map Work coincides with the return of cartography into Conceptual Art, and Hardy Burmeier uses vernacular photographs of the nineteenth century as a base for his computer works.
Artists of this kind come from a variety of backgrounds which were less distinctive for their work than in former generations. Subsequently, a new type of institution arose, teaching an equal variety of subjects from drawing and painting over photography and philosophy to electronics and economy. Although several academies have taken the first steps of their own transformation in that direction (like the Viennese Academy of Applied Arts), only two new schools have to be named in this field—the Kunsthochschule fur Medien (Academy of Media) in Cologne, and the Staatliche Hochschule fur Gestaltung (State Academy of Design) in Karlsruhe, which is directly linked to and situated under the same roof as the Zentrum fur Kunst- und Medientechnologie (Centre of Art and Media Technology). It is too early to see results of these schools, but there still is going to be a small German notion in works that integrate photography and media technology, the Internet and virtual reality, English language and Chinese or Kanji characters. These artists will act globally and still have their feet on the ground of their home countries, Germany and Austria among them.
Rolf Sachsse
Further Reading
Stenger, Erich. Die Photographie in Kultur und Techni, Leipzig: E.A. Seemann, 1938 (American publication: New York, 1939).
Photography in Germany, 12 (Exhibit catalogue). Stuttgart: Institut für Auslandsbeziehungen, 1981-1991.
Geschichte der Fotografie in Oesterreich, 2 vol., (Exhibit catalogue). Bad Ischl: Oesterr. Fotomuseum, 1983.
FOTOVISION, Projekt Fotografie nach 150 (Exhibit catalogue). Jahren, Hannover: Sprengel Museum, 1988.
Das deutsche Aug Exh. cat. Hamburg Munich: Deichtorhallen/Schirmer/Mosel, 1996.
Honnef, Klaus, Rolf Sachsse, and Karin Thomas, eds. German Photography. New Haven, CT and Cologne: Yale University Press/DuMont, 1997.
Positionen künstlerischer Photographie in Deutschland seit 1945 (Exhibit catalogue). Berlin Köln: Berlinische Gal-erie/DuMont, 1997.
Markus Rasp, ed. Contemporary German Photography. Cologne: Taschen, 1997.
frauenobjektiv, Fotografinnen 1940 bis 195 (Exhibit catalogue). Bonn Cologne: Haus der Geschichte der Bundesrepublik/Wienand, 2001.
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